Distinguishability
Distinguishability | |
Computes the maximum probability of distinguishing quantum states | |
Other toolboxes required | CVX |
---|---|
Related functions | ChannelDistinguishability LocalDistinguishability |
Function category | Distinguishing objects |
Distinguishability is a function that computes the maximum probability of distinguishing two or more quantum states. That is, this function computes the maximum probability of winning the following game: You are given a complete description of a set of $k$ quantum states $\rho_1, \ldots, \rho_k$, and then are given one of those $k$ states, and asked to determine (via quantum measurement) which state was given to you.
Contents
Syntax
- DIST = Distinguishability(X)
- DIST = Distinguishability(X,P)
- [DIST,MEAS] = Distinguishability(X,P)
Argument descriptions
Input arguments
- X: The quantum states to be distinguished. X can either be a cell containing 2 or more density matrices, or X can be a matrix whose columns are pure vector states.
- P (optional, default [1/k, 1/k, ..., 1/k], where k is the number of quantum states): A vector whose j-th entry is the probability that the state $\rho_j$ is given to you in the game described above. All entries must be non-negative, and the entries of this vector must sum to 1.
Output arguments
- DIST: The maximum probability of distinguishing the states specified by X.
- MEAS (optional): A cell containing optimal measurement operators that distinguish the states specified by X with probability DIST.
Examples
Orthogonal states can be perfectly distinguished
Any number of quantum states can be perfectly distinguished (i.e., distinguished with probability 1) if they are mutually orthogonal. The following code generates a random $6\times 6$ unitary matrix (i.e., a matrix with orthogonal pure states as columns) and verifies that those pure states are perfectly distinguishable:
>> Distinguishability(RandomUnitary(6)) ans = 1
Two states
The maximum probability of distinguishing two quantum states $\rho$ and $\sigma$ is exactly $\frac{1}{2} + \frac{1}{4}\|\rho - \sigma\|_1$[1], where $\|\cdot\|_1$ is the trace norm. We can verify this in a special case as follows:
>> rho = RandomDensityMatrix(4); >> sigma = RandomDensityMatrix(4); >> Distinguishability({rho, sigma}) ans = 0.7762 >> 1/2 + TraceNorm(rho - sigma)/4 ans = 0.7762
Three or more states
We can also compute the maximum probability of distinguishing three or more states, but no simple formula is known in this case.
>> for j = 1:6 rho{j} = RandomDensityMatrix(4); end >> Distinguishability(rho) ans = 0.4156
Source code
Click on "expand" to the right to view the MATLAB source code for this function.
%% DISTINGUISHABILITY Computes the maximum probability of distinguishing quantum states
% This function has one required input argument:
% X: a cell containing density matrices or a single matrix containing
% pure states as its column vectors
%
% DIST = Distinguishability(X) is the maximum probability of
% distinguishing the quantum states specified by X. X can either be a
% cell containing 2 or more density matrices to be distinguished, or X
% can be a matrix whose columns are pure vector states to be
% distinguished.
%
% This function has one optional input argument:
% P (default [1/k, ..., 1/k], where k is the number of states)
%
% [DIST,MEAS] = Distinguishability(X,P) is the maximum probability of
% distinguishing the quantum states specified by X, where the vector P
% contains the probability that each state is chosen (by default, the
% states are chosen uniformly at random). MEAS is a cell containing the
% optimal measurement operators.
%
% URL: http://www.qetlab.com/Distinguishability
% requires: cvx (http://cvxr.com/cvx/), kpNorm.m, opt_args.m, TraceNorm.m
%
% author: Nathaniel Johnston (nathaniel@njohnston.ca)
% package: QETLAB
% last updated: October 6, 2014
function [dist,meas] = Distinguishability(X,varargin)
if(iscell(X))
num_ops = length(X);
dim = length(X{1});
else
[dim,num_ops] = size(X);
end
% set optional argument defaults: p = [1/k,1/k,...,1/k], where k = # of states
[p] = opt_args({ ones(1,num_ops)/num_ops },varargin{:});
if(abs(sum(p) - 1) > num_ops^2*eps || length(p) ~= num_ops)
error('Distinguishability:InvalidP','The vector P must be a probability distribution of the same length as the number of states: its elements must be non-negative and they must sum to 1.');
end
if(num_ops == 1 || max(p) >= 1) % of course we can distinguish 1 object
dist = 1;
if(nargout > 1)
meas = eye(dim); % optimal measurements is trivial in this case
end
return
end
% X is a cell of density matrices
if(iscell(X))
for j = 1:num_ops % make sure that the density operators are scaled
X{j} = X{j}/trace(X{j});
end
% There is a closed-form expression for the distinguishability of two
% density matrices.
if(num_ops == 2)
dist = 1/2 + TraceNorm(p(1)*X{1} - p(2)*X{2})/2;
if(nargout > 1) % construct optimal measurements, if requested
[v,d] = eig(p(1)*X{1} - p(2)*X{2});
d = diag(d);
pind = find(d >= 0);
meas{1} = v(:,pind)*v(:,pind)';
meas{2} = eye(dim) - meas{1};
end
return
end
% Check to see if the states are mutually orthogonal, and return 1 if
% they are.
if(num_ops <= dim)
mut_orth = 1;
for j = 1:num_ops
for k = j+1:num_ops
if(max(max(abs(X{j}*X{k}))) > eps*dim^2)
mut_orth = 0;
break;
end
end
end
if(mut_orth == 1) % states are mutually orthogonal
dist = 1;
if(nargout > 1) % construct optimal measurements, if requested
meas_sum = zeros(dim);
for j = num_ops:-1:2 % pre-allocate for speed
oX = orth(X{j});
meas{j} = oX*oX';
meas_sum = meas_sum + meas{j};
end
meas{1} = eye(dim) - meas_sum;
end
return;
end
end
% X is a matrix whose columns are pure states
else
X = normalize_cols(X); % make sure that the columns have unit length
% There is a closed-form expression for the distinguishability of two
% pure states.
if(num_ops == 2)
dist = 1/2 + sqrt(2*(p(1)^2 + p(2)^2) - 4*p(1)*p(2)*abs(X(:,1)'*X(:,2))^2)/2;
if(nargout > 1) % construct optimal measurements, if requested
[v,d] = eig(p(1)*X(:,1)*X(:,1)' - p(2)*X(:,2)*X(:,2)');
d = diag(d);
pind = find(d >= 0);
meas{1} = v(:,pind)*v(:,pind)';
meas{2} = eye(dim) - meas{1};
end
return
end
% Check to see if the states are mutually orthogonal, and return 1 if
% they are.
if(num_ops <= dim)
X2 = X'*X;
if(max(max(abs(X2 - diag(diag(X2))))) < eps*dim^2)
dist = 1; % the states are orthogonal, so perfectly distinguishable
if(nargout > 1) % construct optimal measurements, if requested
meas_sum = zeros(dim);
for j = num_ops:-1:2 % pre-allocate for speed
meas{j} = X(:,j)*X(:,j)';
meas_sum = meas_sum + meas{j};
end
meas{1} = eye(dim) - meas_sum;
end
return
end
end
% Turn pure states into density operator form.
Y = X; X = {};
for j = num_ops:-1:1 % pre-allocate for speed
X{j} = Y(:,j)*Y(:,j)';
end
end
% For 3 or more density matrices, we have to use semidefinite programming.
cvx_begin sdp quiet
cvx_precision default;
variable P(dim,dim,num_ops) hermitian
P_tr = 0;
P_sum = zeros(dim);
for j = 1:num_ops
P_tr = P_tr + p(j)*trace(P(:,:,j)*X{j});
P_sum = P_sum + P(:,:,j);
end
P_tr = P_tr + P_tr';
maximize P_tr
subject to
P_sum == eye(dim);
P >= 0;
cvx_end
dist = real(cvx_optval)/2;
% Also return the optimal measurements, if requested.
if(nargout > 1)
meas = mat2cell(reshape(P,dim,dim*num_ops),dim,dim*ones(1,num_ops));
end
References
- ↑ John Watrous. Theory of Quantum Information lecture notes, Fall 2011.